Infrastructure

RESEARCH JUSTIFICATION

Suitable infrastructure is essential for maintaining resilient communities, from transport networks to social networks. Although specific systems analysed in this section may not be explored further in individual theses, the way it manages centralising versus decentralising continues to inform our projects.

How does infrastructure in Scotland work?

Social Infrastructure

In remote areas such as the Scottish Highlands and Islands, social infrastructures are vital to people’s wellbeing, especially given the distance from larger urban support systems. Strong social connections reduce the risk of mental health problems, so creating and maintaining them is essential.

Social connections take two forms. ‘Bonding’ social capital refers to close, inward ties such as family networks, while ‘bridging’ social capital links people across wider and more diverse groups. Bridging capital is particularly important in the Highlands and islands. Because these areas are sparsely populated, newcomers must build bridging connections quickly to integrate. The islands generally have high levels of social capital, as small, remote communities form tight-knit groups. However, isolation and small populations can create ‘insiders’ and ‘outsiders’, making acceptance difficult for new residents. The pressure to fit in can also make expressing different views or raising issues daunting, especially for people with mental health vulnerabilities or any LGBT+ person who may fear disrupting the norm. (Janet Heaton, Experiences of connectedness and mental wellbeing in the Scottish highlands, 2023).

A 2021 study found that 84% of island residents felt they had good access to a social gathering space (Janet Heaton, Experiences of connectedness and mental wellbeing in the Scottish highlands, 2023). These spaces are often pubs, but also community centres and social clubs, though they are less common on smaller isles. One strong source of social bridging in remote rural areas is the unifying influence of community land trusts. Topophilia, the connection between people and the land they occupy, is particularly strong in rural Scotland, and community land trusts strengthen this by giving residents a shared relationship with, and say over, the landscape.

Climate change also acts as a unifying force. As environmental pressures increase, rural communities are brought together, building collective resilience in response to shared threats.

According to a study conducted in 2021, 84% of island residents said they have good access to a social gathering space (Janet Heaton, Experiences of connectedness and mental wellbeing in the Scottish highlands, 2023). These gathering spaces predominantly take the form of pubs, but also through community centres and other social clubs. These larger organisations are lacking on the smaller isles. One area of social bridging found more in remote rural areas is the uniting impact of community land trusts. Topophilia (the connection between people and the land they occupy) is incredibly strong in rural Scotland, community land trusts bond people together through a shared connection to the historic land. This provides an involved sense of ownership over the environment as residents have a say in the use and control of the landscape. A further uniting factor in rural Scotland is the effect of climate change on the environment. The ongoing damaging impact of climate change has forced people in rural areas to band together, building resilience as part of a community.

Transport

Scotland's transport system supports the movement of people and goods across urban, rural, and island areas. It includes roads, rail, bus networks, airports, and ferry services linking remote western and northern isles to the mainland and each other.

Scotland has an extensive road system, including major motorways like the M8 (Glasgow–Edinburgh), M9, and A9 (North to Inverness). Rural and island areas rely on A and B roads, though remote regions face accessibility challenges, particularly in winter. Many local roads are in poor repair, with potholes and erosion a persistent problem, especially in highland areas.

The rail network is well-developed in Central Scotland, connecting cities such as Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, and Inverness. Services are mainly operated by ScotRail, with some long-distance lines by LNER, Avanti West Coast, and the Caledonian Sleeper (overnight to London). The network is aging, and delays and disruptions are common due to outdated infrastructure and underinvestment (Annual efficiency and finance assessment of Network Rail 2024. orr.gov.uk. 2024).

Scotland’s major airports, including Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Aberdeen, provide domestic and international flights, while regional airports in the Highlands and Islands (e.g. Stornoway, Kirkwall) support remote connectivity. Ferry services, are essential for the Hebrides, Orkney, and Shetland. Like the rail network, the fleet is aging, causing frequent cancellations and breakdowns, with delays in vessel replacement severely affecting island communities.

Railway routes and ferry lines on white-01.png

Map Showing Rail & Ferry Routes

Education

Scotland’s education system is distinct from the rest of the UK, based on inclusivity, broad-based learning, and flexibility, overseen by the Scottish Government and local authorities. It is structured into several stages. Early learning and childcare (ages 3–5) focuses on basic developmental skills. Primary education (ages 5–12) builds foundations in literacy, numeracy, health, wellbeing, and interdisciplinary learning. Secondary education (ages 12–18) culminates in national qualifications from age 16, providing credentials for further education at university or college. Most Scottish students studying in Scotland do not pay tuition fees, covered by Student Awards Agency Scotland (SAAS).

While respected for its inclusive principles and free university tuition, the system faces ongoing challenges affecting learners, teachers, and policymakers. Data shows the attainment gap between students from deprived and affluent backgrounds has widened (38.4% for higher qualifications), with students from deprived areas far less likely to achieve higher qualifications or progress to university (Attainment gap widens in Scottish schools. Bbc.co.uk. Feb 25, 2025).

Stuart Hunter, president of Scotland’s Secondary Teachers’ Association, has described Scottish education as “broken” due to rising numbers of children requiring additional support needs (ASN) alongside staff redundancies (Stuart Hunter, Lucy Adams, BBC News, “Scottish education is broken says teachers’ leader”, 2025).

Although literacy and numeracy levels are at “record” levels, Hunter notes this is largely due to staff working well beyond contracted hours. The government has increased the annual education budget to 2023 levels, yet officials warn the Scottish school system “has passed the tipping point leading to crisis” (Stuart Hunter, Lucy Adams, 2025).

Performance of School Pupils

Policing and Crime

The Policing in Scotland is heavily centralised. This is due to the creation of Police Scotland in 2013, through the Police and Fire Reform (Scotland) Act 2012, merged eight regional constabularies into a single national force to streamline services, reduce costs, and improve specialist access. Centralisation brought operational uniformity but shifted resources and decision-making away from rural areas, concentrating personnel and infrastructure in urban centres. The Scottish Government noted that the reform improved national coordination “at the expense of local visibility and community engagement” (Scottish Government, Evaluation of Police and Fire Reform: Year 2 Report, 2017).

Subsequent reviews highlighted the challenge of balancing national efficiency with local needs, recognising that “what works for one community may not work for another” (Scottish Government, Strategic Police Priorities for Scotland, 2016). Station closures, over 140 since 2013, have disproportionately affected rural communities, weakening presence and response capacity. The Year 4 Evaluation Summary confirmed that, while national capabilities improved, sustaining local relationships and responsiveness remained a concern (Scottish Government, Evaluation of Police and Fire Reform: Year 4 Summary, 2019).

The Police Scotland merger illustrates the tension between centralisation for efficiency and the erosion of regional autonomy, with lasting effects on how public services are delivered and experienced outside the Central Belt.

Police Station Closures 2026

Deprivation and Poverty

Current estimates suggest around 20% of Scotland’s population (1,070,000 people) live in relative poverty, defined as a household income below 60% of the national average. Around 16% (890,000 people) live in absolute poverty, lacking basic human requirements. Among children, 23% (220,000) live in relative poverty, and 20% (200,000) in absolute poverty.

Deprivation in Scotland is measured through the Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation (SIMD), which assesses areas based on household income, employment, healthcare, education, housing, geographic access, and crime. Most highly deprived areas are in large urban centres across the central belt. Remote areas, particularly the Highlands and islands, generally perform well, except for geographic access, where they rank among the worst, and housing, which is inconsistent (as of 2020 statistics) (Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation. simd.scot. 2025).

Deprivation Map

Forestry and Timber Infrastructure

Scotland’s timber sector is simultaneously one of its strongest rural industries and one of its most structurally underleveraged. The industry contributes £1.1 billion GVA and supports around 34,000 jobs across forestry, harvesting, transport, and processing (Scottish Forestry, 2023). Scotland produces roughly 60% of all UK softwood, harvesting around 7.8 million m³ annually, yet only a fraction is transformed into high value engineered timber, with over 80% of UK CLT and glulam imported from continental Europe (Scottish Government, 2019). At present, less than 20% of Scotland’s timber is processed into higher value products within the Highlands, despite the region containing a significant share of the resource base. An indicator of supply-chain fragmentation and centralised processing capacity. Simultaneously, woodland creation is falling short of climate targets: against the government’s ambition of 18,000 ha/year, Scotland delivered just 8,470 ha in 2024–25 (Scottish Forestry, 2025). Native woodland expansion is improving (over 5,300 ha planted), but overall sequestration still accounts for only 14% of national emissions, far below what will be required for net zero.

Use of Scottish Felled Timber (%)

Map of Forested Area